The Role of Organizational and Personal Factors in Predicting Job Satisfaction Among Freelance Workers

Abstract

This study examined the role of organizational and personal factors in predicting job satisfaction among freelance workers in the digital creative industry. Specifically, the research investigated the contribution of Perceived Organizational Support (POS) and political skill to job satisfaction among freelance workers at Inavoice Yogyakarta. A quantitative, cross-sectional predictive design using a population study approach was employed. The participants consisted of 102 Indonesian freelance workers who had completed at least four projects between October 2025 and March 2026. Data were collected using the Job Satisfaction Scale, the Survey of Perceived Organizational Support (SPOS), and the Political Skill Inventory (PSI). Multiple regression analysis was conducted to test the proposed hypotheses. The findings revealed that POS and political skill jointly predicted job satisfaction significantly (R = .653, R² = .427, p < .001). Separate simple regression analyses indicated that both POS (R = .575, R² = .330, p < .001) and political skill (R = .526, R² = .276, p < .001) significantly and positively predicted job satisfaction. These findings suggest that organizational support and individual social effectiveness are both positively associated with job satisfaction among freelance workers. The study extends the understanding of job satisfaction in project-based employment settings within the digital creative industry.

Introduction

The development of the creative economy has transformed labor markets in many countries, including Indonesia. Driven by digital technology and growing demand for internet-based content, creative industry subsectors such as voice-over, dubbing, language localization, animation, and audiovisual content production have expanded substantially (Maheswari & Zahro, 2024). Data from the Badan Pusat Statistik (2025) indicate that the creative economy employed approximately 27.4 million workers in 2025, accounting for nearly 18.7% of the national workforce. Within this expanding sector, project-based and freelance work has become an important form of work arrangement, particularly in production settings where employment depends on temporary project assignments (Samimi et al., 2026). Unlike traditional employment, project-based work involves temporary and flexible engagement that depends on project availability. Although such arrangements provide greater autonomy, they also create uncertainty regarding job continuity, income stability, and career prospects (Pang et al., 2025). Consequently, freelance workers must adapt to changing project demands and discontinuous employment relationships, suggesting that the factors associated with their work attitudes and evaluations may differ from those of permanent employees (Moise et al., 2025).

Although freelance, gig, and contingent work share characteristics of non-permanent employment, these terms are not treated as interchangeable in the present study (Cropanzano et al., 2023; Retkowsky et al., 2023). Contingent and gig work represent broader forms of non-standard work arrangements, whereas the present study specifically focuses on freelancers who repeatedly undertake project assignments coordinated by a hiring organization (Barlage et al., 2023). Unlike permanent employees, these freelancers do not have continuous employment relationships, although they may repeatedly work with the same organization across different projects.

According to Locke (1969), job satisfaction is a positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or work experiences. In the context of freelance work, job satisfaction has become increasingly relevant because flexible and project-based employment relationships place workers in conditions that differ from those of permanent employees. Higher levels of job satisfaction have been associated with more positive work experiences, better working relationships, and sustained engagement in work activities (AlMarzooqi et al., 2025). Job satisfaction is also associated with various aspects of work, including job characteristics, the quality of working relationships, and worker-oriented organizational policies (Kohli & Sharma, 2018). For organizations that rely on recurring freelance talent, job satisfaction is also practically relevant because it is associated with work performance, retention, and the continuity of the available talent pool (Nurnaningsih et al., 2025).

Perceived Organizational Support (POS) is a widely studied organizational factor associated with job satisfaction. According to Organizational Support Theory, POS reflects employees’ perceptions that the organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being (Eisenberger et al., 1986). These perceptions develop through experiences of fair treatment, recognition, and organizational support (Eisenberger et al., 2020). POS is particularly relevant for freelance workers because non-permanent employment relationships may increase uncertainty regarding job security and project continuity (Jacobs et al., 2025). Previous studies have consistently demonstrated a positive association between POS and job satisfaction across various organizational contexts (Maan et al., 2020; Pinnington et al., 2024; Roy et al., 2025).

Alongside organizational support, political skill represents an important personal resource. Ferris et al. (2007) defined political skill as an individual's ability to understand others in the workplace and use that understanding to influence them effectively in pursuit of personal and organizational objectives. Individuals with high levels of political skill are generally more capable of building interpersonal relationships, developing social networks, and obtaining support and resources within the work environment (Cropanzano et al., 2023). These abilities are particularly important in freelance work, where success often depends on adapting to different stakeholders, establishing productive working relationships, and maintaining collaboration in dynamic environments (Barlage et al., 2023). Previous studies have shown that political skill is associated with positive work outcomes, including career success and job satisfaction (Jabid et al., 2021; Mirzayev & Mehtap, 2025).

Based on Social Exchange Theory (Blau, 2017), job satisfaction can be understood in relation to both organizational conditions and an individual's ability to build social relationships that support positive work experiences (Liu et al., 2025; Priyanka et al., 2024). In this context, POS and political skill represent complementary organizational and personal resources. Perceived organizational support reflects an external resource provided through organizational support and recognition, whereas political skill represents an internal resource that enables individuals to build effective relationships and navigate workplace dynamics (Nyathi, 2024). Among freelance workers in project-based work systems, both resources are expected to be important because work experiences depend on organizational support as well as individuals' ability to utilize their social environment effectively (Retkowsky et al., 2023; Sulbout & Pichault, 2023). Therefore, job satisfaction among freelance workers can be understood in relation to the complementary contributions of organizational and personal factors.

Previous research has established important associations between perceived organizational support (POS), political skill, and job satisfaction, yet the applicability of these relationships to project-based freelance employment requires further examination. Maan et al. (2020) demonstrated a positive relationship between POS and job satisfaction among employees in manufacturing and service organizations, while Pinnington et al. (2024) examined the relevance of organizational support and job satisfaction among early-career graduates. Similarly, Munyon et al. (2015) provided meta-analytic evidence linking political skill to positive work outcomes, including job satisfaction, whereas Mirzayev and Mehtap (2025) investigated political skill, job satisfaction, and career success among white-collar employees. Although these studies provide valuable theoretical and empirical foundations, their employment contexts differ from those of freelancers who repeatedly undertake projects for the same organization without maintaining continuous employment relationships. Consequently, the extent to which POS and political skill remain relevant predictors of job satisfaction under such employment arrangements requires further empirical investigation.

Research on non-standard employment provides additional insights but addresses somewhat different questions. Barlage et al. (2023), for instance, examined how project characteristics contribute to freelancers' work engagement and knowledge-sharing behavior, whereas Retkowsky et al. (2023) highlighted the fragmented nature of contingent work research and the importance of considering personal and contextual factors in understanding sustainable careers. However, these studies did not directly examine the unique predictive contributions of organizational support and political skill to freelancers' job satisfaction within a single analytical model. This distinction identifies an empirical gap concerning the combined examination of organizational and personal predictors, alongside a contextual gap regarding recurring freelancer–organization relationships in project-based employment. Addressing these gaps, the present study examines POS and political skill as simultaneous predictors of job satisfaction among freelance workers in Indonesia's voice-over, dubbing, and audiovisual content localization industry. By examining both predictors within the same regression model, the study seeks to provide context-specific evidence on the relevance of organizational and personal resources to job satisfaction in project-based freelance work.

Inavoice Yogyakarta is a digital creative company specializing in voice-over, dubbing, and audiovisual content localization services. Most workers are engaged under a project-based work system in which involvement depends on project availability. Under these conditions, workers often rely on organizational support, communication, and interpersonal relationships to access information and future work opportunities. These characteristics make Inavoice a relevant research context because freelancers repeatedly work under the coordination of the same organization while maintaining non-permanent, project-dependent work relationships. Consequently, their work experiences involve both organizational interactions and their ability to adapt to workplace dynamics. A preliminary survey of ten freelance workers identified several work-related concerns relevant to job satisfaction. Specifically, 50% of respondents reported dissatisfaction with career development opportunities, 50% believed that the high quality demands of the job were not matched by adequate recognition, and only 40% reported satisfaction with organizational support in dealing with work-related pressures and project uncertainty. These findings suggest that organizational support and work experiences remain relevant factors in understanding job satisfaction among freelance workers at Inavoice.

Based on the theoretical framework, empirical findings, and research gaps outlined above, this study examines the roles of POS and political skill in predicting job satisfaction among freelance workers at Inavoice. The study contributes to the industrial and organizational psychology literature by examining organizational and personal predictors of job satisfaction among project-based workers in the digital creative industry and offers practical insights for supporting positive work experiences and job satisfaction among freelance workers. Based on Organizational Support Theory, Social Exchange Theory, and previous research findings, the following hypotheses are proposed: (H1) Perceived organizational support positively predicts job satisfaction; (H2) Political skill positively predicts job satisfaction; and (H3) Perceived organizational support and political skill jointly and positively predict job satisfaction.

Methods

Participant characteristics and research design

This study employed a quantitative, cross-sectional predictive design to examine the contributions of POS and political skill to job satisfaction among freelance workers at Inavoice. The participants consisted of 102 Indonesian freelance workers who had completed at least four projects between October 2025 and March 2026.

Freelance workers at Inavoice operate under a project-based work arrangement rather than fixed-term employment contracts. Their involvement with the organization is not limited to a predetermined contract duration, and they may remain registered as talents as long as they continue to comply with the organization’s project and payment procedures. Compensation is determined on a per-project basis, with talents setting their own service rates while Inavoice functions as an intermediary between talents and clients.

Participation was voluntary. Prior to data collection, participants were informed about the purpose of the study and their rights as research participants, and informed consent was obtained electronically through the online survey platform. All responses were kept confidential and used solely for research purposes.

Table 1. Demographics of Participants (N=102)

Variable	Category	Frequency	Percent	Total
Gender	Male	46	45.1	102
	Female	56	54.9
Age	≤20 Years	1	1.0	101*
	21-30 Years	50	49.5
	31-40 Years	44	43.6
	≥41 Years	6	5.9
Project Count with Inavoice	4 Projects	26	25.5	102
	5 Projects	28	27.5
	6 Projects	25	24.5
	7 Projects	14	13.7
	8 Projects	9	8.8
Length of Involvement	2 Years	33	32.4	102
	3 Years	35	34.3
	4 Years	30	29.4
	5 Years	4	3.9
*Note. One participant did not report age.

Sampling procedures

This study employed a population-study approach with respect to the accessible population, meaning that all individuals who met the inclusion criteria were invited to participate. Based on company records, Inavoice had a total workforce of 326 individuals, including 289 project-based freelance workers and 37 permanent employees. The target population for the present study therefore consisted of the 289 freelance workers. The inclusion criteria required participants to be Indonesian citizens and to have completed at least four projects under the coordination of Inavoice Yogyakarta within the previous six months. The four-project criterion was established to ensure that participants had repeated exposure to the organization’s project coordination and work processes, providing sufficient experience to evaluate POS, political skill, and job satisfaction within the Inavoice context. Based on this screening process, an accessible population of 102 individuals was identified. All 102 members of the accessible population were included using saturated sampling; therefore, the final sample consisted of 102 participants. Data collection began on March 7, 2026, and remained open until April 3, 2026. The survey was administered online through Google Forms, with the survey link distributed via a WhatsApp group to all 102 eligible participants; the three study instruments were completed within the same survey form.

Measures

This study employed three self-report instruments. Job satisfaction was measured using a researcher-developed scale based on the three dimensions proposed by Kohli and Sharma (2018): work itself, work relations, and employee-centric policies and principles. The initial scale consisted of 18 favorable items, with six items representing each dimension. Content validity was evaluated qualitatively through expert judgment by the researcher’s supervisors, focusing on the alignment of the items with the operational definitions and the three theoretical dimensions. Item discrimination analysis resulted in the removal of one item from the employee-centric policies and principles dimension because its corrected item-total correlation was .202. The final 17-item scale consisted of six work-itself items, six work-relations items, and five employee-centric policies and principles items, with corrected item-total correlations ranging from .332 to .631 and Cronbach’s α = .851. An English translation of a sample item is “The work I do is meaningful to me.” Items were rated on a five-point scale ranging from Very Dissatisfied (1) to Very Satisfied (5).

Perceived organizational support was measured using the short version of the Survey of Perceived Organizational Support (SPOS) developed by Eisenberger et al. (1986) and adapted by Purwaningrum et al. (2022). POS was treated as a unidimensional construct reflecting workers’ global perception that the organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being. The Indonesian adaptation had previously demonstrated construct validity through confirmatory factor analysis, with all item loadings exceeding .50. In the present project-based context, Inavoice served as the focal organization to which respondents referred when evaluating organizational support, despite the absence of permanent employment contracts. In the present sample, all 16 items were retained, with corrected item-total correlations ranging from .431 to .646 and Cronbach’s α = .889. An English translation of a sample item is “The company truly cares about my well-being.” Responses were rated on a five-point scale ranging from Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly Agree (5).

Political skill was measured using the 18-item Political Skill Inventory (PSI) developed by Ferris et al. (2005) and previously adapted into Indonesian by Setyorini et al. (2021). The instrument comprises four dimensions: social astuteness (5 items), interpersonal influence (4 items), networking ability (6 items), and apparent sincerity (3 items). The Indonesian adaptation had previously demonstrated construct validity through confirmatory factor analysis, with all item loadings exceeding .50. All 18 items were retained in the present study, with corrected item-total correlations ranging from .478 to .678 and Cronbach’s α = .918. An English translation of a sample item is “I can understand other people well.” Because the hypotheses were tested using total scale scores, the internal consistency coefficients reported here refer to the total scores of each instrument. Responses were rated on a five-point scale ranging from Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly Agree (5).

Data Analysis

Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics Version 27. Prior to hypothesis testing, instrument quality was evaluated through content validity and reliability testing. Subsequently, regression assumption tests were conducted, including tests of normality, linearity, multicollinearity, and heteroscedasticity. Hypothesis testing was performed using multiple linear regression analysis to examine the predictive contributions of POS and political skill to job satisfaction. The contribution of each predictor was evaluated from its regression coefficient and corresponding t test, whereas the overall regression model was evaluated using the F test. All statistical analyses were conducted at a significance level of 5% (p < .05).

Results of Study

Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics of the study variables. The job satisfaction variable had a mean score of 67.11 (SD = 8.71). The POS variable had a mean score of 54.70 (SD = 9.72). Meanwhile, the political skill variable had a mean score of 67.33 (SD = 11.03). Based on the hypothetical-score categorization used in the study, the mean levels of job satisfaction and political skill were relatively high, whereas the mean level of POS was moderate.

Table 2. Result of Descriptive Analysis

	N	Theoretical Range	Empirical Range	Mean	Std. Deviation	Interpretation
Job Satisfaction	102	17-85	43-84	67.11	8.706	High
POS	102	16-80	22-73	54.70	9.722	Moderate
Political Skill	102	18-90	33-88	67.33	11.034	High

Pearson correlation analysis showed that job satisfaction was positively associated with both POS (r = .575, p < .001) and political skill (r = .526, p < .001). POS and political skill were also positively correlated (r = .426, p < .001).

Table 3. Reliabilities and Intercorrelations Among Study Variables

Variable	α	1	2	3
Job Satisfaction	.851	-	-	-
POS	.889	.575***	-	-
Political Skill	.918	.526***	.426***	-
Note. N = 102. Values below the diagonal are Pearson correlations. *** p < .001.

Prior to hypothesis testing, regression assumptions were examined. One-Sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov tests indicated that job satisfaction (p = .095), POS (p = .200), and political skill (p = .165) did not significantly deviate from normality. Linearity was supported by nonsignificant deviations from linearity for the relationships between POS and job satisfaction (p = .193) and between political skill and job satisfaction (p = .695). No multicollinearity was detected, as both POS and political skill had tolerance values of .819 and VIF values of 1.221. Inspection of the scatterplot of standardized predicted values against /standardized residuals (Figure 2) showed a random distribution of points without a discernible pattern, indicating no evidence of heteroscedasticity. Visual inspection of the normal P–P plot (Figure 1) showed that the standardized residuals closely followed the diagonal reference line, indicating no substantial departure from residual normality.

Figure 1. Normal P–P Plot of Regression Standardized Residual for Job Satisfaction

Figure 2. Scatterplot of Standardized Predicted Values and Standardized Residuals for Job Satisfaction

The multiple linear regression analysis yielded a multiple correlation coefficient of R = .653, with an R² of .427 and an adjusted R² of .415 (Table 4). These results indicate that perceived organizational support and political skill collectively explained 42.7% of the variance in job satisfaction among freelance workers. The remaining 57.3% of the variance was not explained by the present regression model. The standard error of the estimate was 6.659, representing the residual standard deviation in the units of the job satisfaction scale.

Table 4. Model Summary for Multiple Linear Regression Predicting Job Satisfaction

Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate
1	.653a	.427	.415	6.659
Note. N = 102. Dependent variable: Job satisfaction. Predictors: Perceived organizational support (POS) and political skill. R = multiple correlation coefficient; R² = coefficient of determination; adjusted R² = adjusted coefficient of determination; SEE = standard error of the estimate.

As shown in Table 5, perceived organizational support (B = 0.384, β = .429, t = 5.095, p < .001, 95% CI [0.234, 0.533]) and political skill (B = 0.271, β = .343, t = 4.079, p < .001, 95% CI [0.139, 0.402]) were significant positive predictors of job satisfaction after adjustment for one another. The standardized coefficient for perceived organizational support was numerically larger than that for political skill; however, their difference was not statistically tested. These results support H1 and H2.

Table 5. Multiple Linear Regression Analysis Predicting Job Satisfaction

Predictor	B	SE	β	t	p	95% CI for B
Constant	27.889	4.658	—	5.987	< .001	[18.645, 37.132]
Perceived Organizational Support	0.384	0.075	.429	5.095	< .001	[0.234, 0.533]
Political Skill	0.271	0.066	.343	4.079	< .001	[0.139, 0.402]
Note. N = 102. Dependent variable: job satisfaction. B = unstandardized regression coefficient; SE = standard error; β = standardized regression coefficient; CI = confidence interval.

As presented in Table 6, the overall multiple regression model was statistically significant, F(2, 99) = 36.822, p < .001. Perceived organizational support and political skill jointly explained 42.7% of the variance in job satisfaction (R² = .427; adjusted R² = .415). Therefore, H3, which proposed that the two variables jointly predict job satisfaction, was supported. The remaining 57.3% of the variance was not explained by the present model.

Table 6. Analysis of Variance for the Multiple Regression Model Predicting Job Satisfaction

Source	SS	df	MS	F	p
Regression	3265.724	2	1632.862	36.822	< .001
Residual	4390.090	99	44.344	—	—
Total	7655.814	101	—	—	—
Note. N = 102. Dependent variable: job satisfaction. Predictors: perceived organizational support and political skill. SS = sum of squares; df = degrees of freedom; MS = mean square.

Discussion

The findings indicate that POS positively and significantly predicted job satisfaction among freelance workers at Inavoice. Despite the flexible and project-based nature of freelance employment, workers remain attentive to how the organization treats them and values their contributions (Moise et al., 2025). Organizational support remains associated with workers’ experiences and well-being in project-based settings (Kapsali et al., 2025).

The positive association between POS and job satisfaction may be explained by Organizational Support Theory (Eisenberger et al., 1986), which proposes that workers develop beliefs regarding the extent to which their organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being. Greater perceived support is therefore associated with more positive work attitudes, including job satisfaction. This interpretation is also consistent with Social Exchange Theory, which suggests that organizational support encourages workers to reciprocate with positive attitudes toward their work and the organization.

Freelance workers differ from permanent employees in that their involvement with an organization is often temporary and dependent on project availability, reflecting the project-based and contingent nature of gig and freelance work. Under such conditions, organizational support may become particularly meaningful because it serves as an indicator that workers remain valued despite the absence of formal and long-term employment relationships (Nurnaningsih et al., 2025). In project-based work, such support may be reflected in clear project information, transparent communication regarding assignments, recognition of freelancers’ contributions, and constructive feedback after project completion. These practices may provide freelancers with clearer expectations and reinforce the perception that they remain valued by the organization despite the absence of permanent employment status. Therefore, the predictive relevance of POS to job satisfaction among freelance workers may be especially relevant in project-based work settings where employment continuity cannot always be guaranteed (Yu & Hamid, 2024). The predictive relevance of POS is also consistent with broader concerns identified in the preliminary survey, in which half of the respondents reported dissatisfaction with career development opportunities, half perceived inadequate recognition for work demands, and only 40% reported satisfaction with organizational support in dealing with work-related pressures and project uncertainty. Although the preliminary survey was exploratory and involved only a small number of respondents, these concerns indicate that recognition and organizational support were salient aspects of the freelance work experience even before the main study was conducted.

In addition to POS, political skill positively and significantly predicted job satisfaction among freelance workers at Inavoice. This finding suggests that the ability to understand social situations, build interpersonal relationships, and develop professional networks contributes to positive evaluations of work (Jabid et al., 2021; Mirzayev & Mehtap, 2025). In project-based work settings, freelance workers must adapt to varying project demands and maintain effective relationships with hiring organizations and other stakeholders (Barlage et al., 2023).

The positive association between political skill and job satisfaction is consistent with Ferris et al. (2007), who conceptualized political skill as the ability to understand social situations and manage interpersonal relationships effectively. Such capabilities may help freelancers develop professional networks, obtain social resources, and adapt to changing project demands. Consistent with this perspective, previous studies have shown that political skill is associated with positive work attitudes and higher job satisfaction (Jabid et al., 2021; Mirzayev & Mehtap, 2025; Munyon et al., 2015; Tamirat & Ayenew, 2025).

Furthermore, the importance of political skill may be particularly evident in the voice-over, dubbing, and audiovisual localization industry, where project implementation frequently requires interaction with multiple stakeholders, including project coordinators, quality controllers, translators, editors, and clients, reflecting the collaborative and stakeholder-intensive nature of project-based work (Pemsel & Söderlund, 2025). In such environments, individuals who are able to establish positive relationships, communicate effectively, and maintain professional networks may be better positioned to obtain work-related resources and opportunities, as interpersonal and political competencies facilitate cooperation and access to valuable project networks.

When considered simultaneously, POS and political skill jointly and significantly predicted job satisfaction. This finding indicates that organizational and personal factors make joint predictive contributions to job satisfaction among freelance workers. In project-based work settings, organizational support provides a favorable work environment, whereas political skill enables individuals to utilize available resources and adapt to workplace demands effectively (Ferris et al., 2007). Consistent with Social Exchange Theory and resource-based perspectives, both organizational and individual resources are relevant to positive work outcomes (Bahadir et al., 2024).

Organizational support represents resources embedded in the freelancer–organization relationship, whereas political skill represents an individual capability for navigating social and project-related demands. The present findings therefore support the relevance of considering both organizational and personal resources within the same predictive model, without implying a statistical interaction between them. The present findings indicate that POS and political skill each contributed unique predictive information within the same regression model. Thus, the simultaneous contribution is more appropriately interpreted as complementary prediction rather than as evidence of statistical interaction or compensation between the two predictors. Together, these findings indicate that both supportive organizational conditions and individuals’ ability to navigate workplace relationships and project dynamics are relevant to positive work experiences. This interpretation may help explain why both variables jointly accounted for 42.7% of the variance in job satisfaction among the participants.

Within the present regression model, POS showed a larger standardized regression coefficient (β = .429) than political skill (β = .343). This pattern may reflect the particular importance of organizational conditions in the Inavoice context, where access to project information, project coordination, recognition, feedback, and continuity of work opportunities are partly embedded in the freelancer–organization relationship. Political skill remains a significant predictor, but organizational support may be especially salient because individual interpersonal capabilities cannot independently provide organizational resources such as project clarity or recognition. The difference between the two standardized coefficients, however, was not statistically tested and should therefore not be interpreted as evidence that POS is significantly stronger than political skill.

These findings also have implications for the broader literature. Whereas previous studies on POS, political skill, and job satisfaction have primarily focused on employees in formal and relatively permanent employment relationships, the present findings suggest that these relationships are also evident within the present project-based work setting characterized by more flexible work arrangements. As such, this study extends the applicability of POS and political skill beyond conventional organizational contexts.

From a practical perspective, the findings highlight the importance of addressing both organizational and personal factors to support job satisfaction among freelance workers. For Inavoice, efforts to improve job satisfaction should include not only organizational support but also the development of workers’ interpersonal capabilities. Organizations can foster a supportive work environment through transparent criteria and communication regarding project allocation and future project opportunities, structured post-project feedback, and explicit recognition of freelancers’ contributions to completed projects. Such practices may strengthen perceptions that the organization values workers’ involvement despite the temporary nature of project assignments. At the same time, workers should be encouraged to develop positive working relationships, expand professional networks, and adapt effectively to workplace dynamics.

More broadly, the findings have implications for managing non-standard workers. Organizational support for freelancers does not necessarily require a permanent employment relationship; it can be conveyed through the management of project-based exchanges, including clear communication, transparent project procedures, timely feedback, recognition, and consistent coordination across repeated assignments. Thus, organizations that rely on recurring freelance talent may need HR practices that preserve flexibility while still providing relational and procedural signals that freelancers are valued organizational contributors.

Limitation and Future Research

This study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the study employed a cross-sectional design; therefore, the findings do not permit causal inference. Second, the study was conducted exclusively among freelance workers at Inavoice, and thus the generalizability of the findings to other organizations or occupational sectors should be approached with caution. Third, the study employed a tryout terpakai approach, in which the same dataset was used for both instrument testing and hypothesis testing. Fourth, all study variables were measured using self-report instruments administered within the same survey, which may increase susceptibility to common method variance. Fifth, the study examined only two predictor variables.

Future research is encouraged to employ longitudinal designs, involve participants from a wider range of organizations and industry sectors, and consider additional relevant variables such as work engagement, organizational commitment, job insecurity, and work–life balance. Future studies may also employ multi-source designs by combining freelancers’ self-reports with other relevant sources, such as project-related records or evaluations from organizational stakeholders, where feasible. Qualitative approaches, such as interviews with freelance workers, may further clarify how organizational support, interpersonal dynamics, project allocation, feedback, and employment uncertainty are experienced in project-based work settings.

Conclusions

This study demonstrates that job satisfaction among freelance workers at Inavoice is significantly predicted by both organizational and personal factors, represented by POS and political skill. Together, the two predictors explained 42.7% of the variance in job satisfaction. POS showed a larger standardized regression coefficient than political skill within the present model, although the difference between the two coefficients was not statistically tested. These findings extend existing evidence on job satisfaction by showing that organizational support and individual interpersonal capabilities remain relevant within a project-based work arrangement in Indonesia’s digital creative industry. For organizations that rely on recurring freelance talent, efforts to support job satisfaction may include providing clear and transparent information regarding project allocation and future opportunities, offering structured feedback after project completion, and explicitly recognizing freelancers’ contributions. Organizations may also facilitate opportunities for freelancers to strengthen professional communication, networking, and relationship-management skills that support effective collaboration across changing project teams and stakeholders. These recommendations should be viewed as practical implications derived from the observed predictive relationships rather than as evidence of causal effects.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to Inavoice Yogyakarta for providing permission and support that facilitated the conduct of this research. The authors also extend their appreciation to all freelance workers of Inavoice Yogyakarta who voluntarily participated in this study and generously contributed their time and responses.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study involved a non-interventional quantitative survey conducted among adult employees and posed minimal risk to participants. The research did not involve medical procedures, biological sample collection, vulnerable populations, or the collection of sensitive personal information. Participation was entirely voluntary, and respondents were informed about the purpose of the study, the confidentiality of their responses, and their right to decline participation. Informed consent was obtained electronically prior to questionnaire completion through a consent statement requiring participants to indicate their willingness to participate. No personally identifiable information was collected, and all data were analyzed anonymously for academic research purposes only.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to participant confidentiality considerations but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Artificial Intelligence-Assisted Technology

ChatGPT by OpenAI was used to support language refinement and improve the clarity of academic writing. The authors reviewed, edited, and take full responsibility for the final content of the manuscript.

Authors' contributions

E. P. Pohan conceptualized and designed the study, collected the data, conducted the statistical analyses, interpreted the findings, and prepared the manuscript. T. D. Setyorini provided primary academic supervision, contributed to the development of the research design and methodology, provided critical feedback throughout the research process, and reviewed the manuscript. F. Lekahena provided academic supervision, contributed to the development of the research design and conceptual framework, provided critical feedback throughout the research process, and reviewed the manuscript.

About the Authors

Evan Prima Pohan is a final-year Psychology student at Universitas Proklamasi 45 Yogyakarta. His research interests include Industrial and Organizational Psychology, employee attitudes and behavior, perceived organizational support, political skill, job satisfaction, and workplace well-being. His current research focuses on examining organizational and individual factors that contribute to job satisfaction and positive work experiences among freelance and project-based workers.

Theresia Dewi Setyorini is a lecturer at the Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Proklamasi 45 Yogyakarta. She earned her Bachelor's degree in Psychology from Universitas Gadjah Mada, Master's degrees in Psychology and Science from Universitas Indonesia, and a Doctoral degree from Universitas Padjadjaran. Her research interests focus on Industrial and Organizational Psychology, particularly political skill, leadership, organizational change, readiness for organizational change, learning culture, and organizational behavior. She has authored and co-authored numerous scholarly publications in national and international journals on topics related to political skill, leadership, organizational change, and employee behavior in organizational settings.

Femmy Lekahena is a lecturer at the Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Proklamasi 45 Yogyakarta. She earned her Bachelor's degree in Psychology from Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana and her Master's degree in Psychology from Universitas Mercu Buana Yogyakarta. Her academic interests focus on Industrial and Organizational Psychology, career development, employee well-being, and organizational behavior. She has led and participated in several nationally funded research projects and has published scholarly works in the areas of psychological development, workplace behavior, and human resource development.