The impact of democratic, permissive and authoritarian parenting styles on adolescent self-confidence: Evidence from senior high school students in Indonesia

Abstract

Parenting styles significantly influence adolescent self-confidence, particularly during high school, a critical stage of identity development. This study examines the effects of authoritarian, democratic, and permissive parenting styles on the self-confidence of senior high school students in Blitar Regency, Indonesia. Using a quantitative correlational design, data were collected through questionnaires from 78 students aged 15–17. Descriptive analysis showed that democratic parenting had the highest mean score (M = 44.06, SD = 6.96), while permissive parenting had the lowest (M = 23.28, SD = 5.63). Multiple linear regression analysis indicated that democratic parenting positively influenced self-confidence (B = 0.513, p < 0.05), whereas authoritarian (B = -0.242, p = 0.016) and permissive styles (B = -0.223, p = 0.050) had negative effects. The model explained 35.9% of the variance in self-confidence (Adjusted R² = 0.359). These findings emphasize the importance of democratic parenting, which balances emotional support with structured guidance, in fostering adolescent self-confidence. The study provides practical insights for parents, educators, and policymakers in Indonesia, highlighting the need for parenting programs that promote warmth, open communication, and appropriate boundaries. These strategies can enhance adolescent psychological well-being and contribute to more effective educational and family interventions.

Introduction

Parenting styles play a crucial role in shaping adolescents’ psychological and emotional development, significantly influencing their success and well-being (Glasgow et al., 1997). In the Indonesian context, where familial bonds and hierarchical structures play a central role in child-rearing practices, parenting approaches are shaped by deeply ingrained cultural values. Adolescence, particularly during the high school years, is a pivotal stage marked by rapid physical, emotional, and cognitive transformations (Uccella et al., 2023). During this period, adolescents undergo identity formation, seek greater autonomy, and navigate increasingly complex social environments (Y. Zhang & Qin, 2023). While this developmental phase is universal, the ways in which parents support their children vary significantly across cultures. Parental influence becomes paramount in shaping adolescents' self-perception, emotional resilience, and ability to cope with challenges (Baumrind, 1967; Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Effective parenting extends beyond the provision of basic needs; it encompasses fostering emotional well-being, character development, and essential life skills such as self-confidence.

Self-confidence is a crucial psychological construct that significantly influences various aspects of adolescents' lives, including social interactions, academic achievement, and overall mental health (Watson et al., 2021). Adolescents with high self-confidence are more likely to engage in positive behaviors, take initiative, and persevere in the face of challenges (Barber & Erickson, 2001; Pringle et al., 2018). They are better equipped to handle peer pressure, make informed decisions, and pursue their goals with determination (Bandura, 1997; Marsh & Craven, 2006). Conversely, low self-confidence can lead to avoidance of opportunities, decreased motivation, and increased vulnerability to stress, anxiety, and depression (Benabou & Tirole, 2005; Goette et al., 2015; Krueger & Dickson, 1994). Given its importance, understanding the factors that contribute to the development of self-confidence is imperative, with parenting styles emerging as one of the most influential determinants(Yuliani et al., 2019).

Parenting styles, as defined by Baumrind (1967) and further elaborated by Maccoby & Martin (1983), can be categorized into three primary types: authoritarian, democratic (or authoritative), and permissive. Each style reflects a distinct approach to discipline, communication, and emotional support, with varying implications for adolescent development. Democratic parenting, characterized by balanced emotional warmth and structured guidance, has been widely recognized as the most effective in fostering self-confidence. This style encourages open communication, critical thinking, and emotional resilience, all of which contribute to the development of a positive self-concept (Martinez et al., 2020; Shaidurova et al., 2019).

In contrast, authoritarian parenting emphasizes rigid control and discipline at the expense of emotional support (Baumrind, 2013). This style often leads to negative outcomes such as diminished self-esteem, emotional withdrawal, and reduced self-confidence(Benabou & Tirole, 2005; Hesari & Hejazi, 2011). Adolescents raised in authoritarian households may struggle with self-expression and decision-making, as they are conditioned to prioritize obedience over individuality (Baumrind, 2013; Zaki et al., 2019). Permissive parenting, while providing emotional warmth, lacks the necessary structure and boundaries, resulting in adolescents who struggle with self-regulation and accountability (Moilanen et al., 2015). Without clear expectations or consistent guidance, adolescents may feel unprepared to handle challenges independently, which undermines their self-confidence (Pinquart & Gerke, 2019).

The formative years of adolescence, particularly during senior high school, represent a critical period for identity formation and social adjustment (Meeus, 2011). During this stage, adolescents are more susceptible to external influences, including peer pressure, societal expectations, and academic demands (Blakemore & Mills, 2014). At the same time, they rely heavily on parental support for emotional stability and guidance (McKenna et al., 2022). This reliance on parental guidance is particularly pronounced in Indonesian society, where strong intergenerational ties and collective family values influence adolescents' decision-making processes. Research has shown that parenting styles play a pivotal role in determining how adolescents navigate these challenges. For instance, democratic parenting fosters a supportive environment that encourages open communication, critical thinking, and emotional resilience, all of which contribute to the development of self-confidence (Amanullah & Kharisma, 2022; Latifah, 2020).

While the relationship between parenting styles and adolescent self-confidence has been extensively studied, much of the existing research has focused on Western contexts. This creates a gap in understanding how cultural norms in non-Western societies, such as Indonesia, shape parenting behaviors and their impact on adolescent development. Parenting practices are deeply influenced by cultural norms and values, which shape parents' expectations, disciplinary strategies, and communication styles (Lin et al., 2023). In Western cultures, for instance, democratic parenting is often emphasized as the ideal due to its alignment with individualistic values such as independence and self-expression. However, in collectivist cultures such as Indonesia, parenting practices may reflect a different set of priorities, including respect for authority, familial cohesion, and communal responsibility (Baumrind, 1967; Martinez et al., 2020).

The Indonesian context presents a unique opportunity to explore how cultural values intersect with parenting styles to influence adolescent development. Indonesian parents often blend elements of authoritarian and permissive parenting, reflecting a duality that balances discipline with emotional closeness. Traditional parenting practices incorporate strong respect for elders and hierarchical family structures, where children are expected to adhere to parental authority. At the same time, parental affection and protection are prominent, sometimes leading to a more permissive approach. (Herlambang et al., 2023; Riany et al., 2022). This hybrid model raises important questions about its effects on self-confidence: Does the emphasis on discipline hinder self-expression, or does the emotional closeness compensate for rigid parental expectations?. While authoritarian practices may instill discipline and respect, they may also hinder the development of autonomy and self-expression. Conversely, permissive practices may foster emotional closeness but fail to equip adolescents with the skills necessary for independence and resilience (Jannah et al., 2022; Zaki et al., 2019).

Self-confidence is not merely an innate trait but a construct that is shaped by external influences, including parenting (Adilham, 2023; Raihani et al., 2023). Democratic parenting, with its emphasis on warmth, open communication, and appropriate boundaries, has consistently been shown to promote positive self-esteem and self-confidence in adolescents (Baumrind, 2013; Benabou & Tirole, 2005). Adolescents raised in democratic households are more likely to perceive themselves as capable and valued, which translates into greater confidence in their abilities. This parenting style fosters a sense of competence and autonomy, allowing adolescents to navigate challenges with resilience and optimism (Martinez et al., 2020; Shaidurova et al., 2019).

In contrast, authoritarian parenting, which prioritizes control over nurturing, often leads to negative psychological outcomes (Baumrind, 2013; Hesari & Hejazi, 2011; Yuliani et al., 2019). The lack of emotional support and the reliance on punitive measures can erode an adolescent's self-esteem, resulting in feelings of inadequacy and reduced confidence. Adolescents raised in authoritarian households may struggle with decision-making and self-expression, as they are conditioned to prioritize obedience over personal initiative (Baumrind, 1967, 2013; Zaki et al., 2019). Similarly, permissive parenting, while providing emotional support, fails to establish the structure necessary for adolescents to develop self-discipline and accountability. This lack of boundaries can hinder the development of self-confidence, as adolescents may feel unprepared to handle challenges independently (Pinquart & Gerke, 2019).

Despite the extensive research on parenting styles and adolescent self-confidence, significant gaps remain in the literature. Most existing studies have been conducted in Western contexts, with limited exploration of how these dynamics play out in non-Western settings, such as Indonesia. Furthermore, much of the research has focused on older adolescents or university students, overlooking the unique developmental challenges faced by high school students. This study seeks to address these gaps by examining how specific parenting styles influence self-confidence among high school students in Indonesia, considering both traditional and modern parenting practices. High school represents a critical stage in adolescent development, where self-confidence plays a crucial role in academic achievement, social integration, and overall well-being.

This study aims to address these gaps by examining the influence of parenting styles on the self-confidence of high school students in Blitar Regency, Indonesia. By focusing on a specific cultural context, this research seeks to provide insights into the parenting practices most effective in fostering self-confidence in Indonesian adolescents. The findings are expected to inform interventions aimed at promoting positive parenting practices and enhancing adolescent well-being.

Understanding the relationship between parenting styles and adolescent self-confidence is essential for both theoretical and practical reasons. Theoretically, this research contributes to the growing body of knowledge on the psychological impact of parenting, particularly in non-Western contexts. By exploring the interplay between cultural values and parenting practices, this study aims to provide a more nuanced understanding of how parenting styles influence adolescent development. Practically, the findings of this study have implications for parents, educators, and policymakers. By identifying culturally appropriate parenting strategies, this research can help shape programs that support adolescents' confidence and well-being in Indonesia.

In summary, the influence of parenting styles on adolescent self-confidence is a critical area of study with significant implications for both research and practice. By examining this relationship in the Indonesian context, this study aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of the factors that shape adolescent development. The findings are expected to inform efforts to promote positive parenting practices and support the psychological well-being of adolescents in Indonesia and beyond.

Methods

Research Design

This study employed a quantitative methodology with a correlational descriptive survey design. The objective was to explore the relationship between parenting styles (independent variable) and students' self-confidence (dependent variable). The correlational design was chosen to examine the strength and direction of the relationship between these variables.

Population and Sample

The population of this study consisted of senior high school students in Blitar Regency, Indonesia. A purposive sampling technique was employed to select participants based on specific inclusion criteria. A total of 78 students aged 15–17 years from various high school majors were selected. To minimize potential selection bias, efforts were made to ensure that students from different socioeconomic backgrounds and parental education levels were included. The sample was chosen based on the criteria of age and school level to ensure a representative description of parenting patterns and self-confidence levels among adolescents in the region.

Research Instruments

The research instruments included two questionnaires: one measuring parenting styles and the other assessing students' self-confidence. Both instruments were developed based on established theoretical frameworks and underwent a validation process.

Parenting Style Questionnaire: This instrument measured parenting styles based on three categories: authoritarian, democratic, and permissive (Yusuf, 2010). The questionnaire consisted of 44 items, divided as follows: Authoritarian Parenting: 15 items measuring parents' tendency to impose strict rules, use physical/verbal punishment, and limit children's autonomy. Democratic Parenting: 15 items assessing parental support for children's freedom within limits, effective communication, and explanation of rules. Permissive Parenting: 14 items evaluating parents' tendency to provide freedom without control, loose discipline, and lack of attention to children.

Student Self-Confidence Questionnaire: This instrument was developed based on indicators of self-confidence proposed by Fatimah & Fatimah (2010), including confidence in one's abilities, perseverance, communication skills, positive self-attitude, and independent decision-making. The questionnaire consisted of 30 items, with 16 favorable and 14 unfavorable statements.

Both questionnaires used a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from "Strongly Appropriate" to "Strongly Inappropriate." The validation process included expert judgment from psychologists and education specialists, followed by a pilot study conducted with 30 students who were not part of the main sample. Data from the pilot study were used for analysis, and all items in the parenting style and self-confidence questionnaires were validated, with r-count values exceeding the r-table threshold (0.219 at the 5% significance level). The content validity of the items was assessed by experts in psychology and education, and the reliability was tested using Cronbach's alpha. The reliability analysis of the pilot study confirmed the internal consistency of the instruments, with Cronbach's alpha values of 0.845 for authoritarian parenting, 0.896 for democratic parenting, 0.872 for permissive parenting, and 0.884 for self-confidence.

Data Collection Procedure

Data were collected through a survey method. Questionnaires were distributed directly to students in their classrooms, and sufficient time was provided for completion. The researcher explained the purpose of the study and ensured that participants understood the instructions. Participation was voluntary, and confidentiality of responses was guaranteed.

Data Analysis

The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and multiple linear regression analysis. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the characteristics of the sample and the distribution of scores for each variable. Multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to examine the influence of parenting styles on students' self-confidence. Prior to regression analysis, classical assumption tests (normality, multicollinearity, and heteroscedasticity) were performed to ensure the validity of the regression model.

Ethical Considerations

This study adhered to ethical research standards. Participants were informed about the study's objectives, and their consent was obtained before participation. Data were used exclusively for research purposes, and the anonymity of respondents was maintained throughout the study.

Results and Discussion

Descriptive Statistics

The descriptive statistics provide an overview of the distribution of scores for parenting styles and students' self-confidence. The results are summarized in Table 1. As shown in Table 1, democratic parenting had the highest mean score (M = 44.06, SD = 6.96), while permissive parenting had the lowest (M = 23.28, SD = 5.63). The mean score for self-confidence was 30.20 (SD = 3.84), indicating moderate levels of self-confidence among the participants.

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of Parenting Styles and Self-Confidence

Variable	N	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Standard Deviation
Authoritarian Parenting	78	18.00	50.00	37.08	6.93
Democratic Parenting	78	25.00	55.00	44.06	6.96
Permissive Parenting	78	9.00	36.00	23.28	5.63
Self-Confidence	78	20.00	40.00	30.20	3.84

Validity and Reliability

All items in the parenting style and self-confidence questionnaires were validated, with r-count values exceeding the r-table threshold (0.219 at the 5% significance level). The reliability test using Cronbach's alpha showed high internal consistency for all variables: authoritarian parenting (? = 0.845), democratic parenting (? = 0.896), permissive parenting (? = 0.872), and self-confidence (? = 0.884).

Multiple Linear Regression Analysis

The multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to examine the influence of parenting styles on students' self-confidence. The results are presented in Table 2. The regression equation derived from the analysis is:

Y = 26.254 - 0.134X? + 0.283X? - 0.152X?

Where:

Y = Self-Confidence

X? = Authoritarian Parenting

X? = Democratic Parenting

X? = Permissive Parenting

The results indicate that democratic parenting had a significant positive effect on self-confidence (? = 0.513, p < 0.05), while authoritarian (? = -0.242, p = 0.016) and permissive parenting (? = -0.223, p = 0.050) had significant negative effects. The model explained 35.9% of the variance in self-confidence (Adjusted R² = 0.359).

Table 2. Regression Coefficients of Parenting Styles on Self-Confidence

Variable	Unstandardized Coefficients (B)	Standard Error	Standardized Coefficients (?)	t-value	p-value
Constant	26.254	4.305	-	6.098	0.000
Authoritarian Parenting	-0.134	0.054	-0.242	-2.464	0.016
Democratic Parenting	0.283	0.063	0.513	4.506	0.000
Permissive Parenting	-0.152	0.076	-0.223	-1.997	0.050

Hypothesis Testing

Partial Hypothesis Test (t-test): The t-test results showed that all three parenting styles significantly influenced self-confidence. Democratic parenting had the strongest positive effect (t = 4.506, p < 0.05), while authoritarian (t = -2.464, p = 0.016) and permissive parenting (t = -1.997, p = 0.050) had negative effects. Simultaneous Hypothesis Test (F-test): The F-test confirmed that the combination of authoritarian, democratic, and permissive parenting styles significantly influenced self-confidence (F = 15.389, p < 0.05).

Discussion

The findings of this study highlight the significant influence of parenting styles on adolescent self-confidence. Democratic parenting emerged as the most effective style, positively impacting self-confidence through its balance of emotional warmth and structured guidance. In contrast, authoritarian and permissive parenting styles were associated with lower levels of self-confidence, albeit through different mechanisms. Interestingly, while the overall trends align with existing research, certain nuances in the Indonesian context offer unique insights that warrant further exploration. The discussion below elaborates on these findings, contextualizes them within existing literature, and explores their implications for parenting practices, educational policies, and adolescent development.

Democratic Parenting: A Positive Influence

The results clearly indicate that democratic parenting has the most substantial positive effect on adolescent self-confidence (? = 0.513, p < 0.05). Adolescents raised in environments characterized by warmth, clear communication, and appropriate boundaries displayed significantly higher levels of self-confidence. This finding aligns with previous studies (Martinez et al., 2020; Shaidurova et al., 2019) that emphasize the importance of authoritative or democratic parenting in fostering positive self-concept and self-esteem. Democratic parenting supports autonomy and competence, essential components of self-confidence. The structured guidance and emotional support provided by democratic parents empower adolescents to explore their abilities and make decisions, fostering a sense of capability and resilience.

Moreover, democratic parenting encourages open communication, which allows adolescents to express their thoughts and feelings without fear of judgment or punishment (Sahureka & Soetjiningsih, 2023; Sukmandari et al., 2022). This open dialogue fosters trust between parents and adolescents, creating a supportive environment where adolescents feel valued and understood. Such an environment is crucial for the development of self-confidence, as it enables adolescents to build a positive self-image and develop the skills necessary to navigate social and academic challenges (Chohan & Khan, 2010; Mailhot & Feeney, 2017). The findings of this study underscore the importance of a balanced parenting approach that combines emotional warmth with clear expectations, as this combination appears critical for fostering self-confidence in adolescents.

Additionally, democratic parenting promotes critical thinking and problem-solving skills, which are essential for adolescent development (Putri et al., 2023). By encouraging adolescents to participate in decision-making processes and consider the consequences of their actions, democratic parents help them develop a sense of responsibility and independence. This approach not only enhances self-confidence but also prepares adolescents for the challenges they will face in adulthood. Given these benefits, it is crucial that educational and parenting programs in Indonesia incorporate training on democratic parenting to equip parents with effective communication and guidance techniques.

Authoritarian Parenting: A Negative Impact

In contrast, authoritarian parenting exhibited a significant negative impact on adolescent self-confidence (? = -0.242, p < 0.05). This parenting style, characterized by strict rules, emotional detachment, and punitive measures, was associated with lower levels of self-confidence among adolescents. The mean self-confidence score for adolescents in authoritarian households (M = 37.08, SD = 6.93) was notably lower than those in democratic households (M = 44.06, SD = 6.96). These findings are consistent with existing literature that links authoritarian parenting with diminished self-esteem and increased feelings of inadequacy (Baumrind, 1967; Zaki et al., 2019). The emphasis on obedience and control in authoritarian households suppresses adolescents' ability to express themselves and develop independence (Gittins & Hunt, 2019; Gunnoe et al., 2006). However, in contrast to some studies (e.g Keshavarz & Mounts, 2017), which suggest that authoritarian parenting can yield positive effects in highly collectivist cultures, our findings indicate that it predominantly undermines adolescent self-confidence in the Indonesian context. This contradiction suggests that cultural influences may shape the extent to which authoritarian parenting affects adolescents, warranting further investigation.

The lack of emotional support in authoritarian parenting further exacerbates the negative impact on self-confidence (Wati & Komarudin, 2022). Adolescents raised in such environments may feel that their opinions and emotions are not valued, leading to internalized feelings of unworthiness (Tri Wahyuni Yulya et al., 2023). This emotional detachment can hinder the development of a positive self-concept, as adolescents may struggle to see themselves as capable and competent individuals (Jadon & Tripathi, 2017). The rigid disciplinary approach of authoritarian parenting often leaves little room for adolescents to explore their identities and develop a sense of autonomy, which are crucial for building self-confidence (Beyers et al., 2024; Zheng, 2023).

Furthermore, authoritarian parenting can create a climate of fear and anxiety, where adolescents are more focused on avoiding punishment than on developing their skills and abilities (Hiba, 2024). This fear-based approach to parenting can lead to a lack of initiative and a reluctance to take risks, both of which are essential for personal growth and self-confidence (Brussoni & Olsen, 2013; J. Zhang et al., 2021). The negative effects of authoritarian parenting on self-confidence highlight the need for interventions that encourage parents to adopt more supportive and nurturing parenting practices. Parenting education programs should focus on teaching parents the value of open communication, emotional warmth, and the importance of fostering independence in their children.

Permissive Parenting: Mixed Outcomes

Permissive parenting also demonstrated a negative impact on adolescent self-confidence, although less pronounced than authoritarian parenting (? = -0.223, p ? 0.05). This style, characterized by high emotional warmth but minimal discipline, resulted in lower self-confidence scores (M = 23.28, SD = 5.63). While permissive parenting provides a nurturing environment, the absence of structure and boundaries often leads to difficulties in developing self-regulation and decision-making skills (Piotrowski et al., 2013; Weller et al., 2024). The findings are in line with studies such as those by Pinquart & Gerke (2019). which suggest that permissive parenting hinders adolescents' ability to develop a strong sense of responsibility and competence.

One of the key issues with permissive parenting is the lack of clear expectations and consistent guidance. Adolescents raised in permissive households may struggle to understand the boundaries of acceptable behavior, leading to confusion and insecurity (Parent et al., 2011). Without clear rules and consequences, adolescents may find it difficult to develop self-discipline and accountability, which are essential for building self-confidence (Hosokawa & Katsura, 2019). The absence of structure in permissive parenting can also result in adolescents feeling unprepared to handle challenges independently, further undermining their confidence in their abilities(Hosokawa & Katsura, 2019). To address these issues, educational policies should include parental training on balancing warmth with discipline, ensuring that children receive both emotional support and the necessary structure to build self-confidence.

Cultural Considerations

The Indonesian cultural context, which emphasizes respect for authority and familial cohesion, may influence the manifestation of authoritarian and permissive parenting practices (Bunga et al., 2025). While authoritarian practices may align with cultural norms of discipline and respect, they may also hinder the development of autonomy (Azizy & Febriani, 2024). Similarly, permissive practices, often perceived as expressions of familial affection, may fail to provide the necessary structure for adolescents to thrive (McClelland et al., 2013). These cultural nuances highlight the importance of context-specific parenting interventions.

In Indonesia, traditional parenting practices often incorporate elements of both authoritarianism and permissiveness, reflecting a balance between maintaining familial hierarchy and expressing affection (Puspitasari et al., 2020). This duality poses an interesting question regarding the effectiveness of these styles in promoting self-confidence among adolescents. While authoritarian practices may instill discipline and respect, they may also hinder the development of autonomy and self-expression. Conversely, permissive practices may foster emotional closeness but fail to equip adolescents with the skills necessary for independence and resilience (Jannah et al., 2022; Zaki et al., 2019).

Future research should explore how cultural values interact with parenting styles to influence adolescent development, providing a more comprehensive understanding of these dynamics. Parenting education programs in Indonesia should take into account the cultural context and emphasize the importance of balancing emotional warmth with structured guidance. By addressing the unique challenges and opportunities presented by the Indonesian cultural context, such programs can help parents adopt more effective parenting practices that support adolescent self-confidence and well-being.

Implications

The findings underscore the importance of promoting democratic parenting practices to enhance adolescent self-confidence. This study provides valuable insights into the relationship between parenting styles and adolescent self-confidence, particularly within the Indonesian cultural context. By integrating parenting theories with cultural considerations, this study contributes to the theoretical framework of parenting research, emphasizing the need for culturally adaptive parenting models. Parenting education programs should focus on teaching parents the value of open communication, emotional support, and the establishment of appropriate boundaries. Interventions targeting authoritarian and permissive parenting practices are also needed to address their negative effects on adolescent development. Additionally, schools should integrate self-confidence-building activities into their curricula, reinforcing positive parental influences with structured guidance in the classroom.

Limitations And Future Research

This study has several limitations. The sample size was relatively small, and the cross-sectional design precludes causal inferences. Future research should include larger, more diverse samples and employ longitudinal designs to explore the long-term effects of parenting styles on self-confidence. Additionally, incorporating qualitative methods, such as interviews or observations, could provide deeper insights into the dynamics of parenting and adolescent development.